- Pres. Harding looked the part as president—tall, handsome, silver-haired and was friendly and popular. But, he was of average intelligence and he was gullible. The saying was that George Washington couldn't tell a lie and Harding couldn't tell a liar. Harding sought to collect the "best minds" to be in his administration. Charles Evans Hughes became secretary of state. He was very able in that role. Andrew Mellon became secretary of the treasury and managed the budget extremely well. Due to his food-saving successes in WWI, Herbert Hoover became secretary of commerce. Despite the highlights above, there were also huge duds in the Harding administration. Albert B.Fall was a schemer and anti-conservationist, yet was appointed secretary of the interior to manage natural resources. Harry M. Daugherty was a small-town lawyer, was crooked, yet was appointed attorney general
- Harding was a good man at heart, but he lacked the vigor of a strong leader. In Harding, the less-than-honest had the perfect front for their schemes. The "Old Guard", McKinley-style industrialists sought to further laissez-faire; in other words, to let business run wild and free. Harding appointed 4 Supreme Court justices. Three were standard traditionalists. The other was former president William Taft as chief justice. He judged a bit more liberal. The conservative court halted progressive laws. A federal child-labor law was stopped. In the case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital the court reversed its own reasoning that had been set in Muller v. Oregon. The Muller case had said women need special protection in the work place. The Adkins decision erased the idea of women's protection at work and wiped out a minimum wage law for women. The Anti-trust laws which had been applied during the Progressive years were set aside. The Harding-era trend was clear for businesses: it's a go for expansion and free from fear that the government might interfere. An example would be the I.C.C. (the Interstate Commerce Commission, set up to regulate the railroads). It was made up of men sympathetic to the railroad managers.
- With the war over, the government stepped back and away from business intervention. Two examples were that the War Industries Board was gone and control of the railroads went back to private enterprise in the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act. The federal government got out of shipping by passing the Merchant Marine Act (1920). It authorized the Shipping Board to sell some 1,500 WWI-era ships to private shippers. This meant a smaller navy and less hassles. In the era of laissez-faire and pro-business policies, the labor movement struggled badly.
- A "Disarmament" Conference was held in 1921-22. All major powers were invited, except Bolshevik Russia. Sec. of State Charles Evans Hughes suggested a ratio of ships at 5:5:3 (U.S. to Britain to Japan). Several treaties were made: The Five-Power Treaty set up the 5:5:3 ratio and gave Japan a bonus to save face. The Four-Power Treaty required Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to keep the status quo in the Pacific. The Nine-Power Treaty kept open the Open Door policy with China (free trade for all). At the meetings end, the Harding crowd boasted of disarmament. But, there were technicalities: (1) there was no limit on small ships and (2) the U.S. agreed to the Four-Power Treaty, but was notbound by it (it had no muscle).
- In the pro-business mood of the time period, businesses sought to up the tariff to protect themselves from cheaper European goods. They got their wish in the Fordney-McCumber Tariff which increased tariff rates from 27 to 38.5%. Presidents Harding and Coolidge were given the authority to fluctuate the tariff all the way up to 50%. And, being pro-business men at heart, they leaned toward the higher rather than lower tariffs. There was a snag in this high-tariff system: Europe owed money to the U.S. for WWI, in order to pay it back, they needed to export, but the U.S. tariff crippled those exports. Thus, the WWI money was not getting paid back.
- Pres. Harding was an honest man, but many in his administration were not. Harding either didn't, couldn't, or didn't want to see this fact. Col. Charles R. Forbes skimmed money as chief of the Veterans Bureau. He and his crowd pilfered about $200 million while building veterans hospitals. He spent a whopping two years in jail. The worst was the Teapot Dome scandal involving oil. Sec. of Interior Albert B. Fall was to manage natural resources. When oil was discovered near the "Teapot Dome" in Wyoming, Fall sneakily had the land placed under his power. Fall then accepted bribes for oil drilling rights from Edward Doheny and Harry Sinclair for about $100,000 and $300,000 respectively. Word leaked out in 1923 and it drug through the courts for six years. Doheny and Sinclair got off the hook, Fall served one year in jail. These high-priced scandals and skimpy sentences jolted people's trust in the court system. There were more scandals. Atty. Gen. "Harry Daugherty's name kept coming up for possibly selling pardons and liquor permits (this during Prohibition). Pres. Harding died at this time, August 2, 1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis. The scandals and their stress may well have added to the illness.
- At Harding's death, V.P. Calvin Coolidge became president. He was serious, calm, shy, moral, boring, and unlike most politicians, didn't speak much. It was ironic that in the Twenties, the “Age of Ballyhoo,” the U.S. had a very traditional, old-timey president. Coolidge was even more pro-business than Harding had been. He once said, "the man who builds a factory builds a temple" and "the man who works there, worships there."
- During WWI, farmers had enjoyed a boom. There much much food needed, they provided it, and earned good money in doing so. After the war, new technologies like the tractor made farm work much easier and increased production. But, increased supply with the same demand yields decreased prices. Whereas many enjoyed an economic boom during the decade, farmers fell onto tough times during the 20's. Farmers turned to Congress. The Capper-Volstead Act was passed exempting farmer cooperatives from antitrust laws. The McNary-Haugen Bill tried to keep the price of agricultural goods high. This was to be done by the government buying up excess surpluses then selling them to other nations. Coolidge, the thrifty conservative, vetoed this bill twice.
- 1924 was a presidential election year. Calvin Coolidge was to be reelected for the Republicans as a conservative. John W. Davis was nominated by the Democrats after much debate. In the changing times, Democrats had a hard time defining themselves and their positions at their convention in New York City. They did define their position on race when a Democrat party vote failed to condemn the K.K.K. The Progressive party refused to die and nominated Sen. Robert La Follette. He was endorsed by the American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) labor union and by the Socialists and would receive a sizable 5 million votes. Still, times were good, thus Coolidge was reelected easily.
- With regards to foreign policy, isolationism was the rule. The U.S. would have nothing to do with the League of Nations new "World Court." The U.S. pulled troops out of the Dominican Republic (1925), keep them in Haiti ('til 1934), and settled a situation with Mexico over disputed oil rights (1926). The trend in Latin America was clear by this time: Latinos didn't like big Yankee America pushing them around. The issue of Europe's debt to America was intricate; and besides, Europe was unable to pay up anyway.
- America demanded that Britain and France pay their debts to the U.S. They couldn't. So, they placed a huge price-tag onto Germany who certainly could not pay. Germany printed paper money en masse, thus creating inflation and making the money completely worthless. Inflation was crippling in Germany: a loaf of bread was 480 million marks, it got so bad that it was immeasurable. Coolidge, conservative and thrifty, would not just erase the debt. The situation for paying off debt was hopeless. Charles Dawes came up with the Dawes Plan for payments. America would loan money to Germany. Germany would make payments to Britain and France. Then, they would repay their loans to America. The plan was simply a circle of money from-and-back-to America. Nothing would really be gained in the U.S., but at least on paper, the debts would be repaid. The U.S. never did get repaid for the loans. The only thing America got was resent from Britain and France who thought the U.S. was a greedy bully.
- Calvin Coolidge decided to not run for reelection in 1928. Sec. of Commerce Herbert Hoover became the nominee for Republicans and ran on the prosperity the 20's enjoyed. Hoover spoke of “Rugged Individualism” which was his view that America was made great by strong, self-sufficient individuals, like the pioneers of old days trekking across the prairies, relying on no one else for help. This was the kind of folk America still needed, he said. The Democrats nominated NY Gov. Alfred E. Smith. Smith had the people's touch, but he was Catholic (which turned off many) and he was a drinker (still the days of prohibition).
- At first, Hoover enjoyed the economic prosperity of the day. Hoover's philosophy of helping one's self prompted his to get the Agricultural Marketing Act passed. It set up a Federal Farm Board which was to lend money to farmers. The board started the Grain Stabilization Corp. and Cotton Stabilization Corp. in 1930. They were to buy up surpluses of those crops to keep prices high. Isolationism was carried in the economics as well as politics. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff was hiked up to almost 60%. To other nations, this was like an economic act of war. This increase had negative effects: (1) it went against a trend toward lower tariffs, (2) it would slow trade and thus deepen the depression when it hit, and (3) it helped move the U.S. to full-fledged isolationism and thus help allow Hitler to rise to power.
- The stock market had been shooting higher and higher all decade. Some saw that a house-of-cards built that high could not stand. All it took was a little something to trigger the fall. On "Black Tuesday," October 29, 1929, the bottom dropped out of the stock market on some bad economic news from Britain. The sell-off had begun and prices plummeted: stockholders had lost $40 billion in value by the end of 1929. The stock crash was the trigger and the circle-of-bad-news had begun. Businesses began to go out of business (since people couldn't or wouldn't buy now). Unemployment shot up. Over 5,000, banks went bankrupt as folks withdrew their money in fear of their bank going bankrupt (a self-fulfilling prophecy). The only things growing were soup kitchens and homeless shelters.
- Though the stock crash was the trigger, the causes of the Great Depression were deeper. At their roots, it was same as nearly all recessions and depressions: over-speculation (in stock) and over-production (in farms and factories). American production and consumerism had over-reached the consumers ability to buy things using real money. Purchasing is always good for business, purchasing on credit is too, until the debt gets called in and the consumer can't pay up.
- Like all presidents in economic bad times, Hoover took the blame. This was probably unfair. He didn't help himself though—his "rugged individualist" nature made him slow to take any government action. Hoover-critics pointed out that he'd fed millions in Belgium during WWI, but no one in the U.S. A true conservative would even question whether the government's "help" was beneficial or actuallyhindered any growth. Changing away from laissez-faire might slow the economy even more. Hoover's analysis was simple: this was a natural part of the "business cycle." The business cycle beingthe cyclical ups and downs of an economy, like a roller coaster. His solution was also simple: just wait it out. This is not what the people wanted to hear. Eventually, Hoover did go against his nature and get the government to take some action.
- Pres. Hoover got the government involved in the Great Depression by recommending Congress dole out $2.25 billion. The theory was to jump start the economy through government spending. The massive Boulder Dam was begun in 1930, completed in 1936, and renamed to Hoover Dam. The resulting Lake Mead served to generate electricity, irrigation, flood control, and recreation. It still does. Hoover, however, didn't like all dams. He vetoed the Muscle Shoals Bill to dam the Tennessee River. This would be done later by Franklin Roosevelt under the Tennessee Valley Authority (the TVA). Hoover's most far-reaching effort wasn't construction in nature, but financial. He got the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (the RFC) passed. It would lend money to finance the massive government projects of FDR's "New Deal." The real beneficiaries of the RFC were the government agencies lending the money. They were essentially banks profiting on the interest of loans. This also was a point of criticism toward Hoover.
- Many WWI veterans were still clamoring for "bonuses" for saving the world for democracy. The "Bonus Expeditionary Force" (the BEF) was drummed up. It consisted of 20,000 people who marched to Washington, set up camp (literally), and demanded their bonuses. The situation got out of hand. Riots emerged in the unsanitary encampment. Pres. Hoover criticized the BEF as being made up of riffraff and reds (communists). Hoover ordered the BEF evicted. The eviction was carried out by Gen. Douglas MacArthur and the Army., and it was ugly. MacArthur used bayonets, tear gas, and fire to roust the BEF out. The "Battle of Anacostia Flats" was not a pretty picture in American History. The whole sad affair also hurt Hoover's image even more.
- In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria (northern China). This involved the U.S. a bit since Open Door policy was shut in Manchuria. Those who believed in the idealistic League of Nations and the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed war on paper, were shocked. This was simply a stronger nation in Japan taking over a weaker one in China. Steps were suggested the League use boycotts and blockades to put the economic stranglehold on Japan. But, the U.S. was not a member of the League of Nations. Sec. of State Henry Stimson issued words as actions. The "Stimson doctrine" said the U.S. would not recognize any territories acquired by force. These were the right words, but in the end, only words. The words may have even backfired. Japan was insulted and bombed Shanghai on the coast of China in 1932. Some Americans engaged in informal boycotts. But, this was just piecemeal and unorganized. Since the Depression was foremost on their minds, most Americans didn't care to do much else toward Japan. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 taught a lesson: aggressive nations could take over weaker nations, the free nations would complain, but they would take no action. The first step to WWII had been taken.
- U.S. relations with Latin America had been hurting since around 1900. Hoover wanted to change that. Hoover went on a good-will tour of Latin America in attempt to extend the hand of friendship. In the Depression, Americans had less money to engage in Taft-like "dollar diplomacy" (AKA "economic imperialism") with Latin America. New policies saw American troops were pulled out of Haiti and Nicaragua. These policies laid the groundwork for FDR's "Good Neighbor" policy.
Wednesday, April 1, 2015
The Politics of Boom and Bust: Chapter 32 Reading Guide
1920's Warmup One: March 31, April 1
What nicknames have you heard of for this decade?
The Jazz Age, the Roaring Twenties, Silent Era, Lost Generation
What years are included?
1920 to 1929
Changes and Continuities
1900-1919 Terms
World War One, Progressivism, government as a tool for social good, Sherman Anti-Trust Act, New Freedom, New Nationalism, Idealism, Fourteen Points, worker's rights, trust buster, Treaty of Versailles, Article X, conservation, red scare, women's movement, temperance/prohibition, muckrakers
1920-1929 Terms
Immigration Act of 1924, nativism, Scopes trial, fundamentalists, Sacco and Vanzetti, laissez faire, gangsterism, KKK, expatriates, mass consumption, American Plan/Yellow Dog Contracts, Adkins v. Children's Hospital, automobiles/Fordism, radio, flappers, New v. Old Money
Continuities:
Foreign policy (isolationism), negative attitudes towards immigration, women's struggles, social and political status of African Americans.
Contemporary experience:
The explosion of social media resulting in massive leaps in communication and the spread of ideas, resulting in (in some cases) spread of information and a shift in the dynamic between the way that we receive news as well as the source of the news (seen in events in Ferguson, most news outlets have Twitters, etc.)
1920s Experience:
Bull market: easy credit, get rich quick, speculation, buying on margin, Ponzi schemes,
Technological and cultural change: film industry, sensationalization of Hollywood, "Talkies", radio, emergence of a national culture, automobiles, art movement, modernist v, fundamentalists, changes in educational system with John Dewey and the hands on learning.
Wordle
Categories of words: lifestyle, technology, economics
Lifestyle: gangsterism, flappers, women, Scopes trial, jazz, red scare, KKK, automobiles, prohibition, fundamentalism, immigration, modernism
Technology: automobiles, radio, silent film, talkies, modernist, Fordism,
Economics: laissez-faire, capitalism, bull market, mass consumption, free market, stock market, great market crash
Statement: The 1920s should be considered a distinct historical period than the surrounding generations due to the rapid economic growth through implementation of laissez-faire capitalism, vast social changes for immigrants and women, and the advancement towards modern technology with radios, automobiles, and film.
Categories of words: lifestyle, technology, economics
Lifestyle: gangsterism, flappers, women, Scopes trial, jazz, red scare, KKK, automobiles, prohibition, fundamentalism, immigration, modernism
Technology: automobiles, radio, silent film, talkies, modernist, Fordism,
Economics: laissez-faire, capitalism, bull market, mass consumption, free market, stock market, great market crash
Statement: The 1920s should be considered a distinct historical period than the surrounding generations due to the rapid economic growth through implementation of laissez-faire capitalism, vast social changes for immigrants and women, and the advancement towards modern technology with radios, automobiles, and film.
Monday, March 23, 2015
American Life in the Roaring Twenties- Big Picture Themes
1. Cite examples of actions taken in reaction to the perceived threat of radicals and communists during the red scare.
The passing of criminal syndicalism laws, which made unlawful the mere advocacy of violence to secure social change, as well as in the trial of Nicola Sacco, a shoe-factory worker, and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, a fish peddler, both convicted of murder.
2. Compare and contrast the new and old Ku Klux Klansmen.
The new KKK more closely resembled the anti-foreign “nativist” movements of the 1850s than the anti-black nightriders of the 1860s, being not only anti-foreign and anti-black, but also anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, anti-bootlegger, anti-gambling, anti-adultery, and anti–birth control.
3. Describe immigration laws passed in the 1920's.
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 restricted European immigrants in any given year to a definite quota, which was set at 3 percent of the people of their nationality who had been living in the United States in 1910. The Immigration Act of 1924 cut quotas for foreigners from 3 percent to 2 percent, with the base shifted from the census of 1910 to that of 1890, when comparatively few southern Europeans had arrived. The Immigration Act of 1924 closed the door on Japanese immigrants.
4. How and why was the 18th amendment broken so frequently?
Profound disillusionment over the aftermath of the war raised serious questions as to the wisdom of further self-denial. Slaking thirst became a cherished personal liberty, and many ardent wets believed that the way to bring about repeal was to violate the law on a large enough scale. State and federal agencies were understaffed, and their snoopers, susceptible to bribery, were underpaid.
5. What was Gangsterism?
Gangsterism, spawned by prohibition, was the organized crime of bootlegging alcohol and bribing public officials to keep quiet; this also incorporated prostitution and gambling.
6. Describe the clash of cultures that took place during the 1920s.
John Dewey set forth the principles of “learning by doing” that formed the foundation of so-called progressive education. However, fundamentalists in the twenties charged that the teaching of Darwinian evolution was destroying faith in God and the Bible, while contributing to the moral breakdown of youth in the jazz age.
7. Give evidence to prove that America became a mass consumption economy in the 20's.
The perfection of the assembly line produced a finished automobile every 10 seconds, shifting focus from production to consumption. Advertising took off, using persuasion and ploy, seduction and sexual suggestion, to make Americans discontent with their possessions. Babe Ruth was far better known than most statesmen. The innovation of buying on credit went ever deeper into debt to own all kinds of newfangled marvels—refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, and especially cars and radios—now.
8. What methods made it possible to mass-produce automobiles?
The stopwatch efficiency techniques of Frederick W. Taylor, a prominent inventor, engineer, and tennis player, who sought to eliminate wasted motion, highly standardized parts, and the techniques of assembly-line production—“Fordism"- made it possible to mass-produce automobiles.
9. What were the effects of the widespread adaptation of the automobile?
The automobile industry employed directly or indirectly about 6 million people by 1930, America's standard of living increased greatly, hundreds of oil derricks shot up in California, Texas, and Oklahoma, as these states expanded into an industrial frontier, speedy marketing advanced, roads were built, women were further freed from clinging-vine dependence on men, isolation among the sections was broken down, the celebrated crime waves of the 1920s and 1930s were aided and abetted by the motorcar, for gangsters could now make quick getaways, and it worried older members of the community, being called by one judge "a house of prostitution on wheels".
10. What effects did the early airplane have on America?
The airplane provided the restless American spirit with yet another dimension, gave birth to a giant new industry, and would later be used as a war machine.
11. How did America change as a result of the radio?
Sports were further stimulated, politicians had to adjust their speaking techniques to the new medium, citizens could be participants in world events, and the music of famous artists and symphony orchestras was spread farther than ever before.
12. What were some milestones in the history of motion pictures?
"The Birth of a Nation" was released in 1915 as the first full length motion picture. In 1903, the first story sequence reached the screen in the breathless melodrama, "The Great Train Robbery".
13. "Far-reaching changes in lifestyles and values paralleled the dramatic upsurge in the economy." Explain.
Most Americans lived in urban areas, women continued to find opportunities for employment in the cities, an organized birth-control movement championed the use of contraceptives, and Alice Paul’s National Woman’s party began in 1923 to campaign for an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, the “flapper” symbolized a yearned for and devil-may-care independence (some said wild abandon) in some American women, and a new racial pride also blossomed in the northern black communities that burgeoned during and after the war.
14. How did the arts of the 1920's reflect the times?
The war had jolted many young writers out of their complacency about traditional values and literary standards, seen in Fitzgerald's "This Side of Paradise", used as a sort of Bible for the young, wild youth. "The Great Gatsby", 1925, was a brilliant evocation of the glamour and cruelty of an achievement-oriented society. Hemingway responded to pernicious propaganda and the overblown appeal to patriotism by devising his own lean, word-sparing but wordperfect style. Faulkner peeled back layers of time and consciousness from the constricted souls of his ingrown southern characters. Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, e.e. cummings, and Robert Frost pioneered poetry. After the war a black cultural renaissance also took root uptown in Harlem, led by such gifted writers as Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston, and by jazz artists like Louis Armstrong and Eubie Blake. Architects like Frank Lloyd Wright dismantled modern architecture from the slavishly imitated Greco-Roman Classical styles to dynamic, interactive works of art.
15. Was government economic policy successful in the 1920s?
The creation of the Bureau of Budget, designed in part to prevent haphazardly extravagant appropriations, was vaguely successful. However, the eliminating of excess-profits tax, abolishing the gift tax, and The Stock Market 751reducing excise taxes, the surtax, the income tax, and estate taxes demonized the middle class and further established the gab between the lavishly rich and despondently poor.
The passing of criminal syndicalism laws, which made unlawful the mere advocacy of violence to secure social change, as well as in the trial of Nicola Sacco, a shoe-factory worker, and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, a fish peddler, both convicted of murder.
2. Compare and contrast the new and old Ku Klux Klansmen.
The new KKK more closely resembled the anti-foreign “nativist” movements of the 1850s than the anti-black nightriders of the 1860s, being not only anti-foreign and anti-black, but also anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, anti-bootlegger, anti-gambling, anti-adultery, and anti–birth control.
3. Describe immigration laws passed in the 1920's.
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 restricted European immigrants in any given year to a definite quota, which was set at 3 percent of the people of their nationality who had been living in the United States in 1910. The Immigration Act of 1924 cut quotas for foreigners from 3 percent to 2 percent, with the base shifted from the census of 1910 to that of 1890, when comparatively few southern Europeans had arrived. The Immigration Act of 1924 closed the door on Japanese immigrants.
4. How and why was the 18th amendment broken so frequently?
Profound disillusionment over the aftermath of the war raised serious questions as to the wisdom of further self-denial. Slaking thirst became a cherished personal liberty, and many ardent wets believed that the way to bring about repeal was to violate the law on a large enough scale. State and federal agencies were understaffed, and their snoopers, susceptible to bribery, were underpaid.
5. What was Gangsterism?
Gangsterism, spawned by prohibition, was the organized crime of bootlegging alcohol and bribing public officials to keep quiet; this also incorporated prostitution and gambling.
6. Describe the clash of cultures that took place during the 1920s.
John Dewey set forth the principles of “learning by doing” that formed the foundation of so-called progressive education. However, fundamentalists in the twenties charged that the teaching of Darwinian evolution was destroying faith in God and the Bible, while contributing to the moral breakdown of youth in the jazz age.
7. Give evidence to prove that America became a mass consumption economy in the 20's.
The perfection of the assembly line produced a finished automobile every 10 seconds, shifting focus from production to consumption. Advertising took off, using persuasion and ploy, seduction and sexual suggestion, to make Americans discontent with their possessions. Babe Ruth was far better known than most statesmen. The innovation of buying on credit went ever deeper into debt to own all kinds of newfangled marvels—refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, and especially cars and radios—now.
8. What methods made it possible to mass-produce automobiles?
The stopwatch efficiency techniques of Frederick W. Taylor, a prominent inventor, engineer, and tennis player, who sought to eliminate wasted motion, highly standardized parts, and the techniques of assembly-line production—“Fordism"- made it possible to mass-produce automobiles.
9. What were the effects of the widespread adaptation of the automobile?
The automobile industry employed directly or indirectly about 6 million people by 1930, America's standard of living increased greatly, hundreds of oil derricks shot up in California, Texas, and Oklahoma, as these states expanded into an industrial frontier, speedy marketing advanced, roads were built, women were further freed from clinging-vine dependence on men, isolation among the sections was broken down, the celebrated crime waves of the 1920s and 1930s were aided and abetted by the motorcar, for gangsters could now make quick getaways, and it worried older members of the community, being called by one judge "a house of prostitution on wheels".
10. What effects did the early airplane have on America?
The airplane provided the restless American spirit with yet another dimension, gave birth to a giant new industry, and would later be used as a war machine.
11. How did America change as a result of the radio?
Sports were further stimulated, politicians had to adjust their speaking techniques to the new medium, citizens could be participants in world events, and the music of famous artists and symphony orchestras was spread farther than ever before.
12. What were some milestones in the history of motion pictures?
"The Birth of a Nation" was released in 1915 as the first full length motion picture. In 1903, the first story sequence reached the screen in the breathless melodrama, "The Great Train Robbery".
13. "Far-reaching changes in lifestyles and values paralleled the dramatic upsurge in the economy." Explain.
Most Americans lived in urban areas, women continued to find opportunities for employment in the cities, an organized birth-control movement championed the use of contraceptives, and Alice Paul’s National Woman’s party began in 1923 to campaign for an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, the “flapper” symbolized a yearned for and devil-may-care independence (some said wild abandon) in some American women, and a new racial pride also blossomed in the northern black communities that burgeoned during and after the war.
14. How did the arts of the 1920's reflect the times?
The war had jolted many young writers out of their complacency about traditional values and literary standards, seen in Fitzgerald's "This Side of Paradise", used as a sort of Bible for the young, wild youth. "The Great Gatsby", 1925, was a brilliant evocation of the glamour and cruelty of an achievement-oriented society. Hemingway responded to pernicious propaganda and the overblown appeal to patriotism by devising his own lean, word-sparing but wordperfect style. Faulkner peeled back layers of time and consciousness from the constricted souls of his ingrown southern characters. Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, e.e. cummings, and Robert Frost pioneered poetry. After the war a black cultural renaissance also took root uptown in Harlem, led by such gifted writers as Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston, and by jazz artists like Louis Armstrong and Eubie Blake. Architects like Frank Lloyd Wright dismantled modern architecture from the slavishly imitated Greco-Roman Classical styles to dynamic, interactive works of art.
15. Was government economic policy successful in the 1920s?
The creation of the Bureau of Budget, designed in part to prevent haphazardly extravagant appropriations, was vaguely successful. However, the eliminating of excess-profits tax, abolishing the gift tax, and The Stock Market 751reducing excise taxes, the surtax, the income tax, and estate taxes demonized the middle class and further established the gab between the lavishly rich and despondently poor.
Sunday, March 15, 2015
Essential Questions
1. These groups reflected the central assumptions of progressivism by addressing social grievances- such as poverty, worker's rights, etc.- and calling for increased government action to help alleviate these drains on society by eliminating corruption and inefficiency. Muckrakers exposed the ills of society through riveting journalism found in prints such as McClure's and Cosmopolitan; settlement houses such as the Hull House, run by Jane Addams, helped combat the poverty and lack of education that permeated cities in the wake of urbanization; Social Gospel reformers worked in tandem with settlement volunteers and brought to light what needed to be fixed in progressive era America.
2. Progressives felt trapped between the extremes of the big businesses and the poverty-stricken and sought a middle ground. This was found in the usage of the Australian ballot, the referendum, the citizen voting initiative, the direct election of senators by the people, and the open primary elections.
3. While the Progressive Era (1900-1920) did effectively foster significant advancements in national-level reform movements pertaining to environmental conservation, worker's rights, and trust-busting, many marginalized groups such as immigrants and African Americans remained inherently underprivileged due to inadequate federal support.
4. The government sought support on the home front through extensive use of propaganda that promoted the Allied Forces, depicting the Germans as ruthless barbarians- this was due, in part, to Britain being able to control what stories were being fed to the American press. Support was also drummed up by Wilson's patriotic and morally-rooted plans such as the 14 Points, idealistic view of the war, and the idea of "peace without victory" that played an extensive role in the surrender of the Germans.
5. The United States Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and, thus, membership in the League of Nations because Wilson due to the Senate's divison into the three groups of supporters, irreconcilables, and reservationists, leaving not enough force behind the supporters to gain any momentum, as well as the Senate being afraid that Article X would reduce the Senate's power to declare war. The Treaty also did not coincide with growing American looks towards isolationism.
6. The unprecedented scope and casualities of WWI led to a weary, disillusioned America and an overwhelming desire for "normalcy". Republican candidate Warren G. Harding picked up on this growing American sentiment and stated that the wanted a break from the Wilsonian high-mindedness, gaining public approval.
2. Progressives felt trapped between the extremes of the big businesses and the poverty-stricken and sought a middle ground. This was found in the usage of the Australian ballot, the referendum, the citizen voting initiative, the direct election of senators by the people, and the open primary elections.
3. While the Progressive Era (1900-1920) did effectively foster significant advancements in national-level reform movements pertaining to environmental conservation, worker's rights, and trust-busting, many marginalized groups such as immigrants and African Americans remained inherently underprivileged due to inadequate federal support.
4. The government sought support on the home front through extensive use of propaganda that promoted the Allied Forces, depicting the Germans as ruthless barbarians- this was due, in part, to Britain being able to control what stories were being fed to the American press. Support was also drummed up by Wilson's patriotic and morally-rooted plans such as the 14 Points, idealistic view of the war, and the idea of "peace without victory" that played an extensive role in the surrender of the Germans.
5. The United States Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and, thus, membership in the League of Nations because Wilson due to the Senate's divison into the three groups of supporters, irreconcilables, and reservationists, leaving not enough force behind the supporters to gain any momentum, as well as the Senate being afraid that Article X would reduce the Senate's power to declare war. The Treaty also did not coincide with growing American looks towards isolationism.
6. The unprecedented scope and casualities of WWI led to a weary, disillusioned America and an overwhelming desire for "normalcy". Republican candidate Warren G. Harding picked up on this growing American sentiment and stated that the wanted a break from the Wilsonian high-mindedness, gaining public approval.
Wilson's Foreign Policy and WWI Lecture Notes
Wilson's Foreign Policy
Wilson took a new direction in foreign policy- peacemaker and pacifist at heart, hated big stick policy and dollar diplomacy- took a moral approach, spawning moral diplomacy
Centers around idea that the US could support Latin America by supporting countries who were democratic
Wilson got American bankers to pull out of a loan make to China, got congress to repeal the Panama Canals Tolls Act, signed the Jones Act (1916), granted territorial statues to Philippines and promised independence when a stable government could be founded
However, Wilson was also forced to take action: he diffused a situation with Japan- California forbade Japanese Americans from holding property, sent William Jennings to speak, things calmed down
Forced to take military action in 1915 in Haiti to protect Americans; sent marines to the Dominican Republic to keep order; purchased Virgin Islands from Denmark
Diplomacy in Mexico:
For years, American oil, railroad, and mining companies have used Mexican resources, resulting in widespread Mexican poverty, who eventually rose up in revolt
During the revolt, Mexican president was assassinated and a Native American- Huerta- was appointed president
Revolutionaries under new president were violent, threatened American lives and property, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's regime- allows american arms to go to Huerta rivals
US intervened in Mexico because of the Tampico incident- Mexico seizes American sailors, US took military action
ABC powers: Argentina, Brazil, Chile step in to mediate incident and Huerta steps down- Carranza becomes leader of Mexico, his chief rival Pancho Villa stirs up trouble
Pancho Villa is Mexican robin hood basically
Pancho makes a critical mistake when he raids a train and kills 16 americans, kills 19 more americans in New Mexico
the Pancho Villa raids: troops are taken into Mexico to find Pancho Villa, but he is elusive
During this fighting, WWI breaks out and general in charge gets called back to america
Pancho Villa is murdered by Mexican rival
Despite moral diplomacy ideals, wilson is forced to take action and results in hostile relationship between Mexico and the United States
World War I Begins
June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated by Gavrilo Princep, a Serbian nationalist part of the terrorist group The Black Hand, adamantly against the Austria Hungary empire
This starts the July Crisis: the time period that causes WWI to begin not just between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, but brings in all major countries of EU into war with each other
Main causes:
Militarism, especially relevant looking at naval arms race between Germany and England
Alliances, becoming increasingly complex; formed due to politics/ethnicity. Central Powers Alliance- Germany, Austria, Ottoman Empire; the Allied Powers: Russia, France, Great Britain. Italy switches sides half way through to join allied powers, US joins with this group
AH lays out ultimatums for Serbia, encouraging Russia to mobilize there troops, which leads Germany to becoming increasingly more cautious as to Russia's actions.
August, 1914: Germany declares war on Russia, France declares war on Germany, Germany unfolds Schlieffen Plan to avoid problem of two-front war- focuses on western front first, then take care of Russia second
This involves marching through neutral Belgium brings in England, who enters on August 4. "The lights are going out all over Europe, and I doubt they will be on again in our lifetime."
What is the US doing?
Woodrow Wilson is facing problems in Latin America and Caribbean, as well as having his wife dying; this looms larger than European chaos.
Seemed unreal to most americans that Europe could descend into this "orgy of mutual destruction"
At the early 20th century, Europe had been peaceful and prosperous; this warfare assumes unprecedented proportions and ruthlessness
Characteristics of World War I
The real surprise in 1914 wasn't the war itself, but the nature of the war that unfolded in terms of scale, scope, and carnage
Machine guns, arial bombings, poison gas, long range artillery, etc. produced horrific causalities
Total war: everyone is considered a combatant, included civilians- intentional destruction continued far beyond the battlefield
First month of fighting: Germany ran over a Belgian city, burned down the ancient library, and murdered incredible numbers of civilians; this is used as prop to get US involved
Russia intended this war to be one of racial extermination- each nation is guilty of some sort of atrocity, each engaged in war talks that touched on themes of god, duty, patriotism, honor
All sides thought this would be a war of quick movement, but it was bogged down by 1915 into a stalemate and a war of senseless partition- massive battles that contributed little except slaughter
Battle of Verdun lasted months, saw unprecedented firing that shattered land into a "cratered wasteland", French lost 146k, Germans lost similar amount. Had become "War of Extermination".
Saw rise of trench warfare, won only by brute force. You won't gain ground, just destroy other forces
Trenches were "rat infested and corpse drenched". Lose of feet (trench-foot) and trench fever were common.
Either die in the trenches or in no man's land, where you advance on the enemy who is armed with machine guns, etc.
Once, the British lost 13 thousand men in three hours; this assault only gained them 100 yards of land.
Blood Money: US bankers engage in fruitful trade with the allies, but will lead the United States into eventual war.
What will the United States Do?
As WWI became a stalemate and casualties soared, tension to participate increased.
There was a sense of gratitude of the ocean between the US and Europe.
"Nuetral in thought as well as in action".
More than a third of US citizens were hyphenated Americans. German-Americans numbered around 8 million, Irish-Americans had about 4 million. Both groups had a deep animosity towards Britain; these groups sympathized with Central Powers.
Most American leaders were pro-British from the start of the war and saw German militarism as a threat to the United States.
Blood Money: when war broke out, there was a slump of American exports, but by 1915, there was an incredible boom for american businesses, bankers, and farmers.
US bankers would advance over two billion dollars in loans to the Allies before the US joined, only 27 million to the Germans.
Best way to ensure repayment of loans was if the Allies won the war; pressured administrations to support the British.
Increasing trade among US and Allies is the freedom of the seas. Overseas trade clings to official stance of neutrality- this echoes the US position during the Napoleonic Wars, leading up to the war of 1812.
August 6, William Jennings Bryan calls upon all waring nations to respect the neutrality. British refused this, and in November, they declared the whole North Sea a war zone, lacing the sea with mines, ordering neutral ships to be searched.
British might harm American commerce, but this doesn't cost American lives. However, the Germans respond to the British blockade by proclaiming a war-zone in the sea, subjecting boats to German submarine warfare, which violated the long established procedure of ensuring passengers and crew safety before sinking them.
America pronounces this submarine policy a violation of neutral rights. Then, it all starts to hit the fan.
May 7, 1915: German subs sink a huge ocean liner, the Lusitania- coming from NY, on its way to Great Britain. 128 Americans were killed. First step in unrestricted submarine warfare that caused US to go to war. Americans demand the US takes action.
Roosevelt said the sinking was an act of piracy, Wilson urged patience. Roosevelt threatened to skin Wilson alive if he didn't go to war over the Lusitania.
His previous demand for strict accountability forces him to take a stronger response- demand that the Germans repay America and stop all submarine warfare. Wilson contended that the US wanted nothing less than the sacred rights of humanity.
Starts to see the rise in intentions between Americans and Germans.
Sept, 1913: German sinks English ship, costing 2 American lives.
1914: French boat, the Sussex, sinks, injures 2.
Wilson threatens to break off all diplomatic relations with Germany, resulting in the much stronger Sussex Pledge not to sink merchant or passenger ships. This pledge is stronger than any other previously given and is kept by Germans for about a year.
1916 Election and the United States Entry into War
US demand for a stronger army and navy, pressure to do more for military expansion
December, 1914: National Security League is founded
Ingites debate between pacifists, isolationsists who claim defense buildup is a program for jingos
National Defense Act 1916: Expands regular defense army and National Guard
Although steps are being taken, we don't have anywhere near the numbers needed to fight this war efficiently
1916 election: Republicans were hoping to regain control of normal elected majority and combine again with the Bull Moose. However, they didn't have a good candidate that would deliver this message- ran Charles Evans Hughes. However, he was too similar to Wilson, where Wilson has one issue that he can use to gain him an edge to win: better campaigner and has two pledges: progressive social agenda, and "he kept us out of war".
This resonates enough to help him win by 23 electoral votes and half a million popular votes.
Last Efforts for Peace
Immediately after the election, Wilson offered to mediate things in EU:
"Peace without victory" speech: 1917. No side in this conflict is going to gain an upper hand or be utterly embarrassed. However, he was too late: two weeks before this speech, Germany waged again unrestricted submarine warfare because they hoped to get a quick knockout before the US could get into the war.
All vessels would be sunk without warning- Freedom of the seas is for icebergs and fish.
The United States broke diplomatic relations with the German government, starts to arm west merchant ships.
Feb 25, Britain intercepted the Zimmerman Note from Germany that urged the Mexicans to invade the United States. In exchange for this, Germany guaranteed Mexico would recover land lost to America- New Mexico, Arizona, etc.
This is the last straw- US is in all in.
1917: Fall of the czarist government gave the illusion that to fight for the allies is to make the world safe for democracy- however, a communist dictatorship is installed with the Bolsheviks.
April 2nd, Germany and the United States are at war in a "righteous conflict". This will be the "War to End All Wars".
Causes Overview: British propaganda infiltrating the American media. The United State's deep involvement in allied trade. Unrestricted submarine warfare on the Atlantic was the highest cause.
The resuming of this warfare leaves Wilson no choice but to go to war.
Wilson has a plans to make sure this is the war to end all war: Wilson's 14 Points.
This is Wilsonian idealism at it's finest, resting on principles of collective security in league of nations, as well as self-determination.
Have to make transition from peacetime economy to wartime economy.
The Home Front
Have to mobilize public opinion as well as army
Committee of Public Information headed by George Creel, who said it was best to inform through propaganda, rather than censorship.
Evident in film, music, etc. By arousing public opinion, this spawned american "witch hunts" towards German Americans in acts of violence and mobs.
Symphonies refused to perform Beethoven, towns changed names if it sounded German, dachshunds were renamed "liberty pups".
Wilson saw these consequences, but he leads to effort to suppress civil liberties in Espionage and Sedition Acts.
Espionage Act: Congress can suppress criticism of leaders and policies, imposed fines for those who tried to incite disloyalty, etc
Sedition Act: Suppresses the saying or writing anything "abusive" about the war effort.
More than 1,000 convictions were set out, included on a Socialist congressman and Eugene Debs- received ten years in jail.
Woodrow Wilson, though progressive, refused to grant a pardon to Debs.
Shank v. US: reaffirmed conviction of a man punished for anti-war sentiments, freedom of speech is limited it creates clear and eminent danger. Similar case in Abraham v. US.
Nation's factories go to war.
US was hardly prepared at all- not a large weaponry industry, smaller army and navy.
Plan for mobilization: growing an army- does this through the Selective Service Act (military draft)- all men 21-30, then later 21-45 could be drafted into service.
Black men serve in segregated units.
Complete economic mobilization is necessary to conduct war- Food administration, headed by Herbert Hoover, sought to raise agriculture production while reducing civilian consumption.
Advocated the planting of victory gardens- "food will win the war."
Creation of War Industries Board- government told the industries what they needed to produce, how much, and when they needed it by. Could allocate raw materials, create new plants, and with approval fix prices.
Labor shortage due to men leaving; minorities are encouraged to enter industries normally dominated by white men. Over 400k southern blacks began the Great Migration northward towards industry jobs, completely changing political and social dynamics. Followed by Mexican Americans.
This saw race riots break out over the large cities of the North.
Women supported war effort in mostly traditional ways- red cross, joined army nurse core, etc.
As scope widened, women recruited to work in industrial jobs normally for men- seen as a breakthrough, while this was really limited and brief.
Male dominated unions encouraged women to revert back to gender roles after war was over.
This allowed Wilson to make the decision to endorse women's suffrage- women's votes were vital to winning the war.
AEF in Europe
American troops didn't play a large role into 1918- all through 1917, the allied armies were on the defensive, and situations turned desperate.
November, 1917, Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian Republic and communist leaders dropped out of the war- Russia now concentrates on Western front. Results in a race for the defense of France.
"Tell your Americans to come quickly"- predicts Germans will launch attack in the spring of 1918, and America is needed if the war is won. This ends up being true.
By May 1918, there were one million troops finally making a difference. Despite the modest victories of Americans, the effect on moral was highly positive.
Leads to a momentum shift from Central Powers to Allied.
July 1918, Second Battle of the Mare. British, French, Americans stop British advance into France and pushGermans into Belgians, where AEF starts taking offensive.
September 1918, peak of US fighting, Americans divisions join up with French divisions in breaking up a railroad that gives the entire German front supplies in France.
Neither side has stated openly what they hope to gain from this fight
Wilson: The Americans themselves had no selfish war gain. People everywhere are looking to the US for direction and leadership. This does not jive well with what other countries have been saying.
Wilson's 14 points: the only possible program for peace. first 5 call for open diplomatic conductions, most of the remaining points deal with territorial things, point 14 called for the creation of the League of Nations made to protect peace.
This will be where international community can air out grievances without going to war- embodies Wilson's sincerest ideals.
All accepted this as the basis of negotiations, but the French demanded reparations from Germany and Austria, Britain wants restriction of the sea.
Armistice Day is decided because Germany assumes that negotiations will be dealt with in accord with the 14 Points.
Official ceasefire: 11th day, 11th month, 11th hour. After 1,563 days of warfare, all guns fall silent.
Germans agree to evacuate all territories on assurance that 14 Points will be basis for peace conference.
Wilson and the Paris Peace Conference
Three mistakes that Wilson makes:
Wilson decides to go to Paris himself, gone for six months- negative impact on progressive coalition. Wilson defied any advice given during midterm elections and urged people to vote for a democratic congress. Failed to appoint a prominent republican to the staff of peace commissioners.
Greeted as a hero in Paris, seeing him as a spokesman for humanity.
Others in Paris: Clemenceau from France, David Laurie George, Orlando from Italy
Wilson promises peace without victory, France and Italy want to weaken Germany, Italy wanted land- hammering out the treaty is complex and filled with tension.
Wilson insists that the League of Nations is the top priority of the treaty.
Article X- Heart of the league of nations.
Wilson gives into French demands for concessions and reparations from Germany, leaving Germany poor and weak and eager for revenge in the 1920s, paving way for Hitler to take power.
France gets to exploit Saar Coal Valley resources
British and the French wanted Germany to pay for everything, including veteran pensions
War Guilt Cause: Germany confesses responsibility of the war and therefore the cost of the war- this is what will lead to the rise of the Nazis.
Wilson himself admitted that if he was German, he would refuse to sign the treaty.
German's return this treaty with over 400 pages of criticism, French threaten to move their armies into Germany unless they sign it.
Signed at the Hall of Mirrors in June of 1919.
Once Hitler saw what the treaty has done to Germany, he literally demanded German revenge.
Wilson returns home in July amid great clamor of popular support.
Wilson called upon the Senate to ratify the treaty- "Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?"
Lodge and Wilson get into animosity- Lodge sees that he can gain support by rejecting it.
Three groups in the Senate:
1. Supporters of the treaty. 2. Irreconcilables: refuse to support American membership in the league of nations. 3. Reservationists, wanted limited participation.
Lodge proposes ammendments that would support the Reservationists- Wilson takes the argument to the people with a train tour to gain public approval for the treaty.
This gives him a stroke- he will now be a stubborn, bitter man who refuses to compromise.
Wilson never gets the senate to ratify the treaty due to the senate being afraid that article x would reduce the senate power to declare war, goes against the growing vibe of isolationism, etc.
Election of 1920: Republican candidate Warren G. Harding sees what American public wants
Ultimate irony: built to be the war to end all wars, but Wilson's refusal to compromise at home and over-willingness to compromise abroad directly starts World War II.
Wilson took a new direction in foreign policy- peacemaker and pacifist at heart, hated big stick policy and dollar diplomacy- took a moral approach, spawning moral diplomacy
Centers around idea that the US could support Latin America by supporting countries who were democratic
Wilson got American bankers to pull out of a loan make to China, got congress to repeal the Panama Canals Tolls Act, signed the Jones Act (1916), granted territorial statues to Philippines and promised independence when a stable government could be founded
However, Wilson was also forced to take action: he diffused a situation with Japan- California forbade Japanese Americans from holding property, sent William Jennings to speak, things calmed down
Forced to take military action in 1915 in Haiti to protect Americans; sent marines to the Dominican Republic to keep order; purchased Virgin Islands from Denmark
Diplomacy in Mexico:
For years, American oil, railroad, and mining companies have used Mexican resources, resulting in widespread Mexican poverty, who eventually rose up in revolt
During the revolt, Mexican president was assassinated and a Native American- Huerta- was appointed president
Revolutionaries under new president were violent, threatened American lives and property, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's regime- allows american arms to go to Huerta rivals
US intervened in Mexico because of the Tampico incident- Mexico seizes American sailors, US took military action
ABC powers: Argentina, Brazil, Chile step in to mediate incident and Huerta steps down- Carranza becomes leader of Mexico, his chief rival Pancho Villa stirs up trouble
Pancho Villa is Mexican robin hood basically
Pancho makes a critical mistake when he raids a train and kills 16 americans, kills 19 more americans in New Mexico
the Pancho Villa raids: troops are taken into Mexico to find Pancho Villa, but he is elusive
During this fighting, WWI breaks out and general in charge gets called back to america
Pancho Villa is murdered by Mexican rival
Despite moral diplomacy ideals, wilson is forced to take action and results in hostile relationship between Mexico and the United States
World War I Begins
June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated by Gavrilo Princep, a Serbian nationalist part of the terrorist group The Black Hand, adamantly against the Austria Hungary empire
This starts the July Crisis: the time period that causes WWI to begin not just between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, but brings in all major countries of EU into war with each other
Main causes:
Militarism, especially relevant looking at naval arms race between Germany and England
Alliances, becoming increasingly complex; formed due to politics/ethnicity. Central Powers Alliance- Germany, Austria, Ottoman Empire; the Allied Powers: Russia, France, Great Britain. Italy switches sides half way through to join allied powers, US joins with this group
AH lays out ultimatums for Serbia, encouraging Russia to mobilize there troops, which leads Germany to becoming increasingly more cautious as to Russia's actions.
August, 1914: Germany declares war on Russia, France declares war on Germany, Germany unfolds Schlieffen Plan to avoid problem of two-front war- focuses on western front first, then take care of Russia second
This involves marching through neutral Belgium brings in England, who enters on August 4. "The lights are going out all over Europe, and I doubt they will be on again in our lifetime."
What is the US doing?
Woodrow Wilson is facing problems in Latin America and Caribbean, as well as having his wife dying; this looms larger than European chaos.
Seemed unreal to most americans that Europe could descend into this "orgy of mutual destruction"
At the early 20th century, Europe had been peaceful and prosperous; this warfare assumes unprecedented proportions and ruthlessness
Characteristics of World War I
The real surprise in 1914 wasn't the war itself, but the nature of the war that unfolded in terms of scale, scope, and carnage
Machine guns, arial bombings, poison gas, long range artillery, etc. produced horrific causalities
Total war: everyone is considered a combatant, included civilians- intentional destruction continued far beyond the battlefield
First month of fighting: Germany ran over a Belgian city, burned down the ancient library, and murdered incredible numbers of civilians; this is used as prop to get US involved
Russia intended this war to be one of racial extermination- each nation is guilty of some sort of atrocity, each engaged in war talks that touched on themes of god, duty, patriotism, honor
All sides thought this would be a war of quick movement, but it was bogged down by 1915 into a stalemate and a war of senseless partition- massive battles that contributed little except slaughter
Battle of Verdun lasted months, saw unprecedented firing that shattered land into a "cratered wasteland", French lost 146k, Germans lost similar amount. Had become "War of Extermination".
Saw rise of trench warfare, won only by brute force. You won't gain ground, just destroy other forces
Trenches were "rat infested and corpse drenched". Lose of feet (trench-foot) and trench fever were common.
Either die in the trenches or in no man's land, where you advance on the enemy who is armed with machine guns, etc.
Once, the British lost 13 thousand men in three hours; this assault only gained them 100 yards of land.
Blood Money: US bankers engage in fruitful trade with the allies, but will lead the United States into eventual war.
What will the United States Do?
As WWI became a stalemate and casualties soared, tension to participate increased.
There was a sense of gratitude of the ocean between the US and Europe.
"Nuetral in thought as well as in action".
More than a third of US citizens were hyphenated Americans. German-Americans numbered around 8 million, Irish-Americans had about 4 million. Both groups had a deep animosity towards Britain; these groups sympathized with Central Powers.
Most American leaders were pro-British from the start of the war and saw German militarism as a threat to the United States.
Blood Money: when war broke out, there was a slump of American exports, but by 1915, there was an incredible boom for american businesses, bankers, and farmers.
US bankers would advance over two billion dollars in loans to the Allies before the US joined, only 27 million to the Germans.
Best way to ensure repayment of loans was if the Allies won the war; pressured administrations to support the British.
Increasing trade among US and Allies is the freedom of the seas. Overseas trade clings to official stance of neutrality- this echoes the US position during the Napoleonic Wars, leading up to the war of 1812.
August 6, William Jennings Bryan calls upon all waring nations to respect the neutrality. British refused this, and in November, they declared the whole North Sea a war zone, lacing the sea with mines, ordering neutral ships to be searched.
British might harm American commerce, but this doesn't cost American lives. However, the Germans respond to the British blockade by proclaiming a war-zone in the sea, subjecting boats to German submarine warfare, which violated the long established procedure of ensuring passengers and crew safety before sinking them.
America pronounces this submarine policy a violation of neutral rights. Then, it all starts to hit the fan.
May 7, 1915: German subs sink a huge ocean liner, the Lusitania- coming from NY, on its way to Great Britain. 128 Americans were killed. First step in unrestricted submarine warfare that caused US to go to war. Americans demand the US takes action.
Roosevelt said the sinking was an act of piracy, Wilson urged patience. Roosevelt threatened to skin Wilson alive if he didn't go to war over the Lusitania.
His previous demand for strict accountability forces him to take a stronger response- demand that the Germans repay America and stop all submarine warfare. Wilson contended that the US wanted nothing less than the sacred rights of humanity.
Starts to see the rise in intentions between Americans and Germans.
Sept, 1913: German sinks English ship, costing 2 American lives.
1914: French boat, the Sussex, sinks, injures 2.
Wilson threatens to break off all diplomatic relations with Germany, resulting in the much stronger Sussex Pledge not to sink merchant or passenger ships. This pledge is stronger than any other previously given and is kept by Germans for about a year.
1916 Election and the United States Entry into War
US demand for a stronger army and navy, pressure to do more for military expansion
December, 1914: National Security League is founded
Ingites debate between pacifists, isolationsists who claim defense buildup is a program for jingos
National Defense Act 1916: Expands regular defense army and National Guard
Although steps are being taken, we don't have anywhere near the numbers needed to fight this war efficiently
1916 election: Republicans were hoping to regain control of normal elected majority and combine again with the Bull Moose. However, they didn't have a good candidate that would deliver this message- ran Charles Evans Hughes. However, he was too similar to Wilson, where Wilson has one issue that he can use to gain him an edge to win: better campaigner and has two pledges: progressive social agenda, and "he kept us out of war".
This resonates enough to help him win by 23 electoral votes and half a million popular votes.
Last Efforts for Peace
Immediately after the election, Wilson offered to mediate things in EU:
"Peace without victory" speech: 1917. No side in this conflict is going to gain an upper hand or be utterly embarrassed. However, he was too late: two weeks before this speech, Germany waged again unrestricted submarine warfare because they hoped to get a quick knockout before the US could get into the war.
All vessels would be sunk without warning- Freedom of the seas is for icebergs and fish.
The United States broke diplomatic relations with the German government, starts to arm west merchant ships.
Feb 25, Britain intercepted the Zimmerman Note from Germany that urged the Mexicans to invade the United States. In exchange for this, Germany guaranteed Mexico would recover land lost to America- New Mexico, Arizona, etc.
This is the last straw- US is in all in.
1917: Fall of the czarist government gave the illusion that to fight for the allies is to make the world safe for democracy- however, a communist dictatorship is installed with the Bolsheviks.
April 2nd, Germany and the United States are at war in a "righteous conflict". This will be the "War to End All Wars".
Causes Overview: British propaganda infiltrating the American media. The United State's deep involvement in allied trade. Unrestricted submarine warfare on the Atlantic was the highest cause.
The resuming of this warfare leaves Wilson no choice but to go to war.
Wilson has a plans to make sure this is the war to end all war: Wilson's 14 Points.
This is Wilsonian idealism at it's finest, resting on principles of collective security in league of nations, as well as self-determination.
Have to make transition from peacetime economy to wartime economy.
The Home Front
Have to mobilize public opinion as well as army
Committee of Public Information headed by George Creel, who said it was best to inform through propaganda, rather than censorship.
Evident in film, music, etc. By arousing public opinion, this spawned american "witch hunts" towards German Americans in acts of violence and mobs.
Symphonies refused to perform Beethoven, towns changed names if it sounded German, dachshunds were renamed "liberty pups".
Wilson saw these consequences, but he leads to effort to suppress civil liberties in Espionage and Sedition Acts.
Espionage Act: Congress can suppress criticism of leaders and policies, imposed fines for those who tried to incite disloyalty, etc
Sedition Act: Suppresses the saying or writing anything "abusive" about the war effort.
More than 1,000 convictions were set out, included on a Socialist congressman and Eugene Debs- received ten years in jail.
Woodrow Wilson, though progressive, refused to grant a pardon to Debs.
Shank v. US: reaffirmed conviction of a man punished for anti-war sentiments, freedom of speech is limited it creates clear and eminent danger. Similar case in Abraham v. US.
Nation's factories go to war.
US was hardly prepared at all- not a large weaponry industry, smaller army and navy.
Plan for mobilization: growing an army- does this through the Selective Service Act (military draft)- all men 21-30, then later 21-45 could be drafted into service.
Black men serve in segregated units.
Complete economic mobilization is necessary to conduct war- Food administration, headed by Herbert Hoover, sought to raise agriculture production while reducing civilian consumption.
Advocated the planting of victory gardens- "food will win the war."
Creation of War Industries Board- government told the industries what they needed to produce, how much, and when they needed it by. Could allocate raw materials, create new plants, and with approval fix prices.
Labor shortage due to men leaving; minorities are encouraged to enter industries normally dominated by white men. Over 400k southern blacks began the Great Migration northward towards industry jobs, completely changing political and social dynamics. Followed by Mexican Americans.
This saw race riots break out over the large cities of the North.
Women supported war effort in mostly traditional ways- red cross, joined army nurse core, etc.
As scope widened, women recruited to work in industrial jobs normally for men- seen as a breakthrough, while this was really limited and brief.
Male dominated unions encouraged women to revert back to gender roles after war was over.
This allowed Wilson to make the decision to endorse women's suffrage- women's votes were vital to winning the war.
AEF in Europe
American troops didn't play a large role into 1918- all through 1917, the allied armies were on the defensive, and situations turned desperate.
November, 1917, Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian Republic and communist leaders dropped out of the war- Russia now concentrates on Western front. Results in a race for the defense of France.
"Tell your Americans to come quickly"- predicts Germans will launch attack in the spring of 1918, and America is needed if the war is won. This ends up being true.
By May 1918, there were one million troops finally making a difference. Despite the modest victories of Americans, the effect on moral was highly positive.
Leads to a momentum shift from Central Powers to Allied.
July 1918, Second Battle of the Mare. British, French, Americans stop British advance into France and pushGermans into Belgians, where AEF starts taking offensive.
September 1918, peak of US fighting, Americans divisions join up with French divisions in breaking up a railroad that gives the entire German front supplies in France.
Neither side has stated openly what they hope to gain from this fight
Wilson: The Americans themselves had no selfish war gain. People everywhere are looking to the US for direction and leadership. This does not jive well with what other countries have been saying.
Wilson's 14 points: the only possible program for peace. first 5 call for open diplomatic conductions, most of the remaining points deal with territorial things, point 14 called for the creation of the League of Nations made to protect peace.
This will be where international community can air out grievances without going to war- embodies Wilson's sincerest ideals.
All accepted this as the basis of negotiations, but the French demanded reparations from Germany and Austria, Britain wants restriction of the sea.
Armistice Day is decided because Germany assumes that negotiations will be dealt with in accord with the 14 Points.
Official ceasefire: 11th day, 11th month, 11th hour. After 1,563 days of warfare, all guns fall silent.
Germans agree to evacuate all territories on assurance that 14 Points will be basis for peace conference.
Wilson and the Paris Peace Conference
Three mistakes that Wilson makes:
Wilson decides to go to Paris himself, gone for six months- negative impact on progressive coalition. Wilson defied any advice given during midterm elections and urged people to vote for a democratic congress. Failed to appoint a prominent republican to the staff of peace commissioners.
Greeted as a hero in Paris, seeing him as a spokesman for humanity.
Others in Paris: Clemenceau from France, David Laurie George, Orlando from Italy
Wilson promises peace without victory, France and Italy want to weaken Germany, Italy wanted land- hammering out the treaty is complex and filled with tension.
Wilson insists that the League of Nations is the top priority of the treaty.
Article X- Heart of the league of nations.
Wilson gives into French demands for concessions and reparations from Germany, leaving Germany poor and weak and eager for revenge in the 1920s, paving way for Hitler to take power.
France gets to exploit Saar Coal Valley resources
British and the French wanted Germany to pay for everything, including veteran pensions
War Guilt Cause: Germany confesses responsibility of the war and therefore the cost of the war- this is what will lead to the rise of the Nazis.
Wilson himself admitted that if he was German, he would refuse to sign the treaty.
German's return this treaty with over 400 pages of criticism, French threaten to move their armies into Germany unless they sign it.
Signed at the Hall of Mirrors in June of 1919.
Once Hitler saw what the treaty has done to Germany, he literally demanded German revenge.
Wilson returns home in July amid great clamor of popular support.
Wilson called upon the Senate to ratify the treaty- "Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?"
Lodge and Wilson get into animosity- Lodge sees that he can gain support by rejecting it.
Three groups in the Senate:
1. Supporters of the treaty. 2. Irreconcilables: refuse to support American membership in the league of nations. 3. Reservationists, wanted limited participation.
Lodge proposes ammendments that would support the Reservationists- Wilson takes the argument to the people with a train tour to gain public approval for the treaty.
This gives him a stroke- he will now be a stubborn, bitter man who refuses to compromise.
Wilson never gets the senate to ratify the treaty due to the senate being afraid that article x would reduce the senate power to declare war, goes against the growing vibe of isolationism, etc.
Election of 1920: Republican candidate Warren G. Harding sees what American public wants
Ultimate irony: built to be the war to end all wars, but Wilson's refusal to compromise at home and over-willingness to compromise abroad directly starts World War II.
Progressive DBQ- Document I
Thesis:
While the Progressive Era (1900-1920) did effectively foster significant advancements in national-level reform movements pertaining to environmental conservation, worker's rights, and trust-busting, many marginalized groups such as immigrants and African Americans remained inherently underprivileged due to inadequate federal support.
Source Evaluation: Document I
a. Despite America's progress, the fact that the country still does nothing in the wake of the lynchings, beatings, brutality, and disenfranchisement of African Americans renders the United States still as a "shameful land".
b. The intended audience is the American government and public, especially those who remain idle about African American struggles.
c. The point of view established here is a reformative point of view, influenced by the undressed discrimination and hatred towards blacks.
d. This can be linked to the Massachusetts 54th, World War I, Bourbon Democrats, and Reconstruction.
e. Outside information: du Bois' foundation of the NAACP, Jim Crow laws.
While the Progressive Era (1900-1920) did effectively foster significant advancements in national-level reform movements pertaining to environmental conservation, worker's rights, and trust-busting, many marginalized groups such as immigrants and African Americans remained inherently underprivileged due to inadequate federal support.
Source Evaluation: Document I
a. Despite America's progress, the fact that the country still does nothing in the wake of the lynchings, beatings, brutality, and disenfranchisement of African Americans renders the United States still as a "shameful land".
b. The intended audience is the American government and public, especially those who remain idle about African American struggles.
c. The point of view established here is a reformative point of view, influenced by the undressed discrimination and hatred towards blacks.
d. This can be linked to the Massachusetts 54th, World War I, Bourbon Democrats, and Reconstruction.
e. Outside information: du Bois' foundation of the NAACP, Jim Crow laws.
The Jungle Reading and Responses
Response to Reading (Problems): Spreading of Tuberculosis, spoiled meat, rat contamination, poisoning, and spoiling of goods were among the principle problems outlined by Sinclair in The Jungle. He detailed grisly occurrences within the industry, including dead vermin and lots of poor upkeep of the food.
Response to Reading (Problems): Sinclair mentions the wool-pluckers, whose hands were eaten up with acid in order to loosen the wool of sheep; those that made the tin cans for meat, whose bare hands were laced with cuts and each cut was prone to blood poisoning; those that worked at the stamping machines risked having a part of their hand chopped off; the hoisters that moved cattle developed severe back problems; some men fell into open vats full of steam, leaving nothing but bones. The plight of the factor worker was severe.
- It was very emotionally provocative, and it effectively gave Americans a personal attachment to attempting to improve conditions for factory workers as well as ensuring safer food and meat for public consumption. Muckraking was very motivational and effective in its careful construction and appeal to pathos.
- I would expect them to set new guidlines and construct laws to ensure the safety of factory workers as well as improved sanitation for the food that is going to be consumed by Americans. They should also support inspections of factories to make sure these laws are being carried out.
- With labor unions demanding more rights and the problems only getting stronger, it is assumable that the conditions would be realized and speedily improved; it is an embarrassment for big companies to have bad public relations and a tarnished image, so it is safe to say that eventually, when the whistle was blown, conditions would improve.
Parts of Act to Try and Solve Problem: Meat food products distributed to the American public must be wholesome, unadulterated, and properly labeled for safe consumption; the ones that don't meet these requirements can be sold for a cheaper price if advertised as such. The burden is placed on the government to regulate such commmerce and to protect the health and welfare of the consumers. An examination of all food and meat is required and can be done at any time, and passing food must be inspected and passed or subsequently condemned. All slaughtering of meat must be sanitary and conditions have to be maintained and inspected.
Parts of Act to Try and Solve Problem: You are not allowed to produce or manufacture adulterated and uninspected food for sale. You are prohibited from transporting uninsepcted or adulterated meat and food across state and national boundaries. The Secretary of Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor must make the rules for and carry out these provisions. Examinations of food and drugs shall be made in the borough of chemistry or of the Department of Agriculture. Meat and food may not be misbranded. If these are violated the company will be taken to the highest court of the United States for trial. Companies must guarantee the safety and cleanliness of their products and must clearly display their information on packaging
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